Simultaneous automated ascertainment of prevalent vertebral fracture and abdominal aortic calcification in clinical practice: role in fracture risk assessment.

Whether simultaneous automated ascertainments of prevalent vertebral fracture (auto-PVFx) and abdominal aortic calcification (auto-AAC) on vertebral fracture assessment (VFA) lateral spine bone density (BMD) images jointly predict incident fractures in routine clinical practice is unclear. We estimated the independent associations of auto-PVFx and auto-AAC primarily with incident major osteoporotic and secondarily with incident hip and any clinical fractures in 11 013 individuals (mean [SD] age 75.8 [6.8] years, 93.3% female) who had a BMD test combined with VFA between March 2010 and December 2017. Auto-PVFx and auto-AAC were ascertained using convolutional neural networks (CNNs). Proportional hazards models were used to estimate the associations of auto-PVFx and auto-AAC with incident fractures over a mean (SD) follow-up of 3.7 (2.2) years, adjusted for each other and other risk factors. At baseline, 17% (n = 1881) had auto-PVFx and 27% (n = 2974) had a high level of auto-AAC (≥ 6 on scale of 0 to 24). Multivariable-adjusted hazard ratios (HR) for incident major osteoporotic fracture (95% C.I.) were 1.85 (1.59, 2.15) for those with compared to those without auto-PVFx, and 1.36 (1.14, 1.62) for those with high compared to low auto-AAC. The multivariable-adjusted HRs for incident hip fracture were 1.62 (95% C.I. 1.26 to 2.07) for those with compared to those without auto-PVFx, and 1.55 (95% C.I. 1.15 to 2.09) for those high auto-AAC compared to low auto-AAC. The 5-year cumulative incidence of major osteoporotic fracture was 7.1% in those with no auto-PVFx and low auto-AAC, 10.1% in those with no auto-PVFx and high auto-AAC, 13.4% in those with auto-PVFx and low auto-AAC, and 18.0% in those with auto-PVFx and high auto-AAC. While physician manual review of images in clinical practice will still be needed to confirm image quality and provide clinical context for interpretation, simultaneous automated ascertainment of auto-PVFx and auto-AAC can aid fracture risk assessment.

Individuals with calcification of their abdominal aorta (AAC) and vertebral fractures seen on lateral spine bone density images (easily obtained as part of a bone density test) are much more likely to have subsequent fractures. Prior studies have not shown if both AAC and prior vertebral fracture both contribute to fracture prediction in routine clinical practice. Additionally, a barrier to using these images to aid fracture risk assessment at the time of bone density testing has been the need for expert readers to be able to accurately detect both AAC and vertebral fractures. We have developed automated computer methods (using artificial intelligence) to accurately detect vertebral fracture (auto-PVFx) and auto-AAC on lateral spine bone density images for 11 013 older individuals having a bone density test in routine clinical practice. Over a 5-year follow-up period, 7.1% of those with no auto-PVFx and low auto-AAC, 10.1% of those with no auto-PVFx and high auto-AAC, 13.4% of those with auto-PVFx and low auto-AAC, and 18.0% of those with auto-PVFx and high auto-AAC had a major osteoporotic fracture. Auto-PVFx and auto-AAC, ascertained simultaneously on lateral spine bone density images, both contribute to the risk of subsequent major osteoporotic fractures in routine clinical practice settings.

Investigating the impact of developmental coordination difficulties across home, school, and community settings: Findings from the Australian Impact for DCD survey.

AIM: To evaluate the participation difficulties experienced by children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) in home, school, and community environments. METHODS: The Impact for DCD survey was completed by primary caregivers of 4-18-year-old children with DCD (or synonymous diagnosis) (n = 429). OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: The greatest participation difficulties experienced at home included dressing, eating with utensils, self-care tasks and drawing/writing reported by over 70% of families. At school, fine motor difficulties were also frequently reported, with additional difficulties keeping up or completing tasks, and not feeling supported at school. Socialisation challenges and bullying were also commonly reported (34.9%). As a result of participation difficulties at school, 5.4% were home schooled. Many children engaged in community activity, with 72.0% currently engaged in at least one organised sports-based activity. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Increased recognition of the widespread impact of DCD in a child's life is crucial at an individual and societal level. Parents reported their children experiencing significant participation restrictions and difficulties. The findings of this large-scale study have revealed that most children with DCD are not receiving the support they need to thrive, especially at school. This largely reflects a lack of understanding and recognition of the condition and its associated challenges.

Psychosocial wellbeing, parental concerns, and familial impact of children with developmental coordination disorder.

BACKGROUND: Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental condition impacting motor skill acquisition and competence. While previous studies have identified adverse psychosocial outcomes in DCD, they are limited by small or population-screened, community-based samples. AIMS: To understand the psychosocial difficulties, parental concerns, and familial impacts of childhood DCD in a large population-based sample. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Parents of 310 children aged 4 - 18 years with a diagnosis of DCD (or synonymous term) completed the Impact for DCD survey. Parent-rated measures of emotional problems, peer problems, and prosocial behaviour were compared to normative data. Parental concerns for the impact of DCD on participation, interaction, emotional well-being, and the family system were examined. OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: Compared to typically developing children, children with DCD were rated significantly higher for emotional and peer problems, and significantly lower for prosocial behaviours. Parents most commonly reported concerns for their child's future and withdrawal from physical activity. The presence of one or more co-occurring disorders did not significantly influence outcomes. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Findings highlight the poor psychosocial outcomes for children with DCD. Crucially, poor psychosocial outcomes were just as likely in those with a single diagnosis of DCD as those with DCD and multiple co-occurring diagnoses. Parents reported concerns for their child (i.e., non-participation and social withdrawal) that are not targeted in existing DCD intervention modalities and emphasised the impact of DCD on the whole family unit. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: This paper presents data from the largest parent-reported survey of children with a known diagnosis of DCD (or synonymous labels). It highlights the significant impact of DCD on psychosocial outcomes in children across age groups. The children in this study were rated by their parents to have significantly higher levels of emotional and peer problems, and lower prosocial behaviours, than similarly aged Australian children without DCD. It also challenges the misconception that poor psychosocial outcomes in DCD are the result of co-occurring disorders, with outcomes observed to be as poor in children with a sole diagnosis of DCD in this sample. Furthermore, findings highlighted the significant worry and concern that parents with DCD face, particularly around their child's participation and their emotional health. Finally, parents reported on the considerable impact that DCD had on their family unit, regularly causing worry and concern, influencing their choice of activities, and causing financial strain. These concerns and impacts are not addressed in current intervention models for DCD and highlight the need for support mechanisms moving forward.

Machine learning for abdominal aortic calcification assessment from bone density machine-derived lateral spine images.

BACKGROUND: Lateral spine images for vertebral fracture assessment can be easily obtained on modern bone density machines. Abdominal aortic calcification (AAC) can be scored on these images by trained imaging specialists to assess cardiovascular disease risk. However, this process is laborious and requires careful training. METHODS: Training and testing of model performance of the convolutional neural network (CNN) algorithm for automated AAC-24 scoring utilised 5012 lateral spine images (2 manufacturers, 4 models of bone density machines), with trained imaging specialist AAC scores. Validation occurred in a registry-based cohort study of 8565 older men and women with images captured as part of routine clinical practice for fracture risk assessment. Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate the association between machine-learning AAC (ML-AAC-24) scores with future incident Major Adverse Cardiovascular Events (MACE) that including death, hospitalised acute myocardial infarction or ischemic cerebrovascular disease ascertained from linked healthcare data. FINDINGS: The average intraclass correlation coefficient between imaging specialist and ML-AAC-24 scores for 5012 images was 0.84 (95% CI 0.83, 0.84) with classification accuracy of 80% for established AAC groups. During a mean follow-up 4 years in the registry-based cohort, MACE outcomes were reported in 1177 people (13.7%). With increasing ML-AAC-24 scores there was an increasing proportion of people with MACE (low 7.9%, moderate 14.5%, high 21.2%), as well as individual MACE components (all p-trend <0.001). After multivariable adjustment, moderate and high ML-AAC-24 groups remained significantly associated with MACE (HR 1.54, 95% CI 1.31-1.80 & HR 2.06, 95% CI 1.75-2.42, respectively), compared to those with low ML-AAC-24. INTERPRETATION: The ML-AAC-24 scores had substantial levels of agreement with trained imaging specialists, and was associated with a substantial gradient of risk for cardiovascular events in a real-world setting. This approach could be readily implemented into these clinical settings to improve identification of people at high CVD risk. FUNDING: The study was supported by a National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia Ideas grant and the Rady Innovation Fund, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba.

A statistical shape model of soleus muscle morphology in spastic cerebral palsy.

This study investigated morphological characteristics of the soleus muscle in cerebral palsy (CP) and typically developing (TD) cohorts using a statistical shape model and differentiated dominant features between the two cohorts. We generated shape models of CP and TD cohorts to characterize dominant features within each. We then generated a combined shape model of both CP and TD to assess deviations of the cohorts' soleuses from a common mean shape, and statistically analysed differences between the cohorts. The shape models revealed similar principal components (PCs) with different variance between groups. The CP shape model yielded a distinct feature (superior-inferior shift of the broad central region) accounting for 8.1% of the model's cumulative variance. The combined shape model presented two PCs where differences arose between CP and TD cohorts: size and aspect ratio of length-width-thickness. The distinct appearance characteristic in the CP model-described above-may implicate impaired muscle function in children with CP. Overall, children with CP had smaller muscles that also tended to be long, thin, and narrow. Shape modelling captures dominant morphological features of structures, which was used here to quantitatively describe CP muscles and further probe our understanding of the disease's impact on the muscular system.

"Capturing the magic": identifying the active ingredients of a physical activity participation intervention for children and youth with disabilities.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to define the active ingredients of a participation-focused physical activity intervention for children and youth with disabilities. MATERIALS AND METHODS: An ethnographic approach was employed, triangulating participant observation, interviews and focus groups. Participant recruitment occurred through purposive sampling of staff employed at Beitostolen Healthsports Centre (BHC), and paediatric service providers visiting the centre. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and coded together with observation data. Secondary coding linked data to corresponding categories of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health: Child and Youth version. RESULTS: Thirteen staff from BHC and 7 paediatric service providers participated in the study. Fourteen active ingredients were identified and were characterised at the level of the intervention (k = 8), the organisation (k = 4), and the individual (k = 2). Within the ingredients, 53 unique ICF-CY categories were identified. Twenty-six categories belonged to the ICF-CY component of "environment," and 26 categories to "activities and participation." No categories related to "body functions" or "body structures." CONCLUSIONS: The role of the environment, and specifically support and relationships, may be an essential consideration for enabling physical activity participation. Outcomes may guide program design and implementation to promote and sustain physical activity behaviours for children and youth with disabilities.Implications for rehabilitationThe active ingredients identified in this study may guide the design and implementation of programs to promote and sustain physical activity behaviours of children and youth with disabilities.Leadership qualities and strength-based attitudes may be key characteristics of organisational practice that optimise outcomes for children and families.A "relationship-centred" approach, i.e., a network of children, families, health professionals, peers, mentors, and services in the community, may support children and young people with disabilities to achieve their physical activity participation goals.

Machine learning for automated abdominal aortic calcification scoring of DXA vertebral fracture assessment images: A pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Abdominal aortic calcification (AAC) identified on dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) vertebral fracture assessment (VFA) lateral spine images is predictive of cardiovascular outcomes, but is time-consuming to perform manually. Whether this procedure can be automated using convolutional neural networks (CNNs), a class of machine learning algorithms used for image processing, has not been widely investigated. METHODS: Using the Province of Manitoba Bone Density Program DXA database, we selected a random sample of 1100 VFA images from individuals qualifying for VFA as part of their osteoporosis assessment. For each scan, AAC was manually scored using the 24-point semi-quantitative scale and categorized as low (score < 2), moderate (score 2 to <6), or high (score ≥ 6). An ensemble consisting of two CNNs was developed, by training and evaluating separately on single-energy and dual-energy images. AAC prediction was performed using the mean AAC score of the two models. RESULTS: Mean (SD) age of the cohort was 75.5 (6.7) years, 95.5% were female. Training (N = 770, 70%), validation (N = 110, 10%) and test sets (N = 220, 20%) were well-balanced with respect to baseline characteristics and AAC scores. For the test set, the Pearson correlation between the CNN-predicted and human-labelled scores was 0.93 with intraclass correlation coefficient for absolute agreement 0.91 (95% CI 0.89-0.93). Kappa for AAC category agreement (prevalence- and bias-adjusted, ordinal scale) was 0.71 (95% CI 0.65-0.78). There was complete separation of the low and high categories, without any low AAC score scans predicted to be high and vice versa. CONCLUSIONS: CNNs are capable of detecting AAC in VFA images, with high correlation between the human and predicted scores. These preliminary results suggest CNNs are a promising method for automatically detecting and quantifying AAC.

The unmet clinical needs of children with developmental coordination disorder.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to understand the challenges experienced by families obtaining a diagnosis and therapy for developmental coordination disorder (DCD). METHODS: Parents of 435 children aged 4-18 years with persistent motor difficulties consistent with a diagnosis of DCD completed an online survey. Diagnostic timeline and diagnostic label/s received were examined, along with therapies accessed. RESULTS: There was inconsistent diagnostic terminology (nine separate terms) with more children diagnosed with dyspraxia (64.7%) than DCD (48.8%). Even though most parents (87.0%) reported that receiving a diagnosis was helpful, children did not receive a diagnosis until years after seeking help (mean 2.8 ± 2.3 years). Many children were diagnosed with at least one co-occurring neurodevelopmental, language or learning disorder (70.0%). Almost all families had accessed therapy for their child's movement difficulties (93.9%), but more than half did not have access to funding to support therapy costs (57.8%) and reported that the costs caused financial strain (52.6%). Two out of every three families reported that they did not feel the current level of therapy was sufficient. CONCLUSIONS: This critical advocacy research highlights inconsistent and incorrect terminology and the challenges families experience in obtaining a diagnosis and adequate access to therapy for their child's movement difficulties. IMPACT: This is the first comprehensive study to examine the challenges families experience gaining a diagnosis and therapy for their child with DCD. Families regularly experienced prolonged diagnosis; 45% waited between 2 and 4 years. There is no clear diagnostic pathway, with children more likely to be diagnosed with dyspraxia than the correct clinical diagnosis of DCD. More extensive implementation of the diagnostic guidelines into clinical practice is needed.

Measuring skeletal muscle morphology and architecture with imaging modalities in children with cerebral palsy: a scoping review.

AIM: To investigate the use of ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) methodologies to assess muscle morphology and architecture in children with cerebral palsy (CP). METHOD: A scoping review was conducted with systematic searches of Medline, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and PsycInfo for all original articles published up to January 2019 utilizing ultrasound and/or MRI to determine morphological and architectural properties of lower limb skeletal muscle in children with CP. RESULTS: Eighty papers used ultrasound (n=44), three-dimensional ultrasound (n=16), or MRI (n=20) to measure at least one muscle parameter in children and adolescents with CP. Most research investigated single muscles, predominantly the medial gastrocnemius muscle, included children classified in Gross Motor Function Classification System levels I (n=62) and II (n=65), and assessed fascicle length (n=35) and/or muscle volume (n=35). Only 21 papers reported reliability of imaging techniques. Forty-six papers assessed measures of Impairment (n=39), Activity (n=24), and Participation (n=3). INTERPRETATION: Current research study design, variation in methodology, and preferences towards investigation of isolated muscles may oversimplify the complexities of CP muscle but provide a foundation for the understanding of the changes in muscle parameters in children with CP. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: Current evidence is biased towards the medial gastrocnemius muscle and more functionally able children with cerebral palsy (CP). Variations in imaging techniques and joint positioning limit comparisons between studies. Clinimetric testing of parameters of CP muscle is not always considered. Assessment of parameter(s) of muscle with measures of participation is sparse.

Prevalence of Motor Difficulties in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Analysis of a Population-Based Cohort.

Motor impairment is not currently included in the diagnostic criteria or evaluation of autism. This reflects the lack of large-scale studies demonstrating its prominence to advocate for change. We examined the prevalence of motor difficulties at the time of diagnosis in a large sample of children with autism utilizing standardized assessment, and the relationship between motor difficulties, core autism symptomology, and other prominent clinical features. Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales were administered to children from the Western Australian Register for Autism Spectrum Disorders aged ≤6 years (N = 2,084; 81.2% males, 18.8% females). Prevalence of motor difficulties was quantified based on scores from the motor domain of the Vineland and then compared to other domains of functioning within the Vineland (communication, daily living, and socialization), the DSM criteria, intellectual level, age, and gender. Scores on the Vineland indicated that 35.4% of the sample met criteria for motor difficulties (standard score <70), a rate almost as common as intellectual impairment (37.7%). Motor difficulties were reported by diagnosing clinicians in only 1.34% of cases. Motor difficulties were common in those cases meeting diagnostic criteria for impairments in nonverbal behavior and the presence of restricted and repetitive behaviors. The prevalence of motor difficulties also increased with increasing age of diagnosis (P < 0.001). Findings from the present study highlight the need for further consideration of motor difficulties as a distinct specifier within the diagnostic criteria for ASD. Autism Res 2020, 13: 298-306. © 2019 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. LAY SUMMARY: In this population-based cohort that included 2,084 children with autism aged ≤6 years, over one-third met the criteria for motor difficulties, a rate almost as common as intellectual disability. This study demonstrates that motor difficulties are a prominent feature of the autism phenotype requiring further consideration in both the diagnostic criteria and evaluation of autism.

'It's important that we learn too': Empowering parents to facilitate participation in physical activity for children and youth with disabilities.

AIM: The actions and behaviors of parents have been identified as key factors that influence a child's participation in physical activity. However, there is limited knowledge of how parents can be supported to embody facilitative roles. This study aimed to explore how an ecological intervention encourages parents of children with disabilities to develop as facilitators, to enable ongoing physical activity participation in a child's local environment. METHODS: A qualitative design using grounded theory was employed. Forty four parents (26 mothers, 18 fathers) of 31 children with a range of disabilities (mean age 12y 6m (SD 2y 2m); 18 males) partaking in the Local Environment Model intervention at Beitostolen Healthsports Centre in Norway participated in the study. Data were derived from the triangulation of semi-structured interviews and participant observation. Data analysis was an iterative approach of constant comparison, where data collection, memo writing, open, axial and selective coding analysis, were undertaken simultaneously. Findings were consolidated into a model describing the central phenomenon and its relationship to other categories. RESULTS: Thematic concepts uncovered in this study describe a social process of parent learning and empowerment, comprising three primary components; (i) active ingredients of the intervention that enabled learning and empowerment to transpire, (ii) parent learning and empowerment as a process, and (iii) related outcomes. CONCLUSION: A family-centered approach, encompassing family-to-family support, may enhance physical activity participation outcomes for children and youth with disabilities.

Physiological characteristics, self-perceptions, and parental support of physical activity in children with, or at risk of, developmental coordination disorder.

Children with low movement proficiency have been identified as having poorer physiological and psychosocial outcomes; however, the varied measurement approaches used to assess these outcomes have varied resulting in conflicting evidence regarding the presence and magnitude of differences compared to Typically Developing (TD) children. Additionally, there has been limited research into the role of parental support for physical activity (PA) in this group. We compared children with varying levels of movement proficiency on physiological characteristics and self-perceptions regarding PA. In addition, these children's parents were compared on physiological characteristics and support of their children's PA. Children (N = 117) aged 6 to 12 years, along with their parent/guardian, participated in this study. Children were classified according to the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 test (Typically Developing (TD) = 60; At Risk = 19; Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) = 38). Children's PA, muscle strength, cardio-respiratory fitness (CRF), body composition, and self-perceptions regarding PA were assessed, with parents assessed on CRF, body composition, and PA support. Compared to TD children, children with DCD had lower PA (p = 0.036), predilection (p ≤0.001) and adequacy (p ≤0.001) regarding PA, higher body fat percentage (p = 0.019), and received less logistic support (i.e., transportation) from their parents (p = 0.012). TD children had increased muscle strength compared to the DCD (p ≤ 0.001) and At Risk (p ≤ 0.001) groups. Results indicated that, relative to TD children, children with DCD have multiple physiological deficits, receive less parental logistic support for PA involvement, and report lower scores on psychological constructs that are predictive of PA involvement.

Muscle volume alterations after first botulinum neurotoxin A treatment in children with cerebral palsy: a 6-month prospective cohort study.

AIM: This study aimed to track alterations in muscle volume for 6 months in children with cerebral palsy (CP) after the first exposure to botulinum neurotoxin A (BoNT-A), a commonly used focal spasticity treatment. METHOD: Eleven ambulant children (eight males, three females) with spastic CP, mean age 8 years 10 months (SD 3y 1mo) participated. Participants received injections to the affected gastrocnemius. The muscle volume of the gastrocnemius, soleus, tibialis anterior, and hamstrings was measured using magnetic resonance imaging. Muscle volume was normalized to bone length, and changes analysed relative to baseline. Assessments were conducted 1 week before, and 4 weeks, 13 weeks, and 25 weeks after BoNT-A treatment. RESULTS: All children demonstrated positive clinical and functional gains. Muscle volume of the injected gastrocnemius was found to be significantly reduced at 4 weeks (-5.9%), 13 weeks (-9.4%), and 25 weeks (-6.8%). Significant increases in normalized soleus muscle volume were identified at each follow-up, while hamstrings showed significant increase at 4 weeks only. INTERPRETATION: Absolute and normalized muscle volume of the injected muscle reduces after first BoNT-A exposure, and does not return to baseline volume by 25 weeks. Hypertrophy is seen in the soleus up to 25 weeks; the volume of the plantar flexor compartment is stable. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: Muscle atrophy after first botulinum neurotoxin A (BoNT-A) exposure in children with cerebral palsy is noted. Mild BoNT-A-induced muscle atrophy is still apparent 6 months after BoNT-A exposure. Hypertrophy is evident in soleus after gastrocnemius BoNT-A exposure. Total plantarflexor volume is unchanged.

Visual tracking behaviour of two-handed catching in boys with developmental coordination disorder.

BACKGROUND: Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a motor learning disability that affects coordination resulting in an inability to perform movement skills at an age appropriate level. One area suspected to contribute to the movement difficulties experienced are deficits in visuomotor control. AIMS: This study investigated visual tracking behaviour during catching in children with DCD. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Twenty-four boys completed the study: 11 with DCD (9.43 years ±0.73) and 13 controls (9.16 years ± 0.68). Participants performed 10 central catching trials, with the best five used to evaluate tracking behaviour and motor responses. OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: Prior to ball release, the DCD group exhibited more fixations (p = 0.043) of lesser duration (p = 0.045). During flight, the DCD group took longer to initiate smooth pursuit (p = 0.003) however, once initiated, both groups were effectively able to maintain smooth pursuit. Despite initial delays, these had no impact on movement initiation time (p = 0.173), however, movement time was significantly slower in the DCD group (p = 0.031). CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: The results of this study demonstrate that catching performance in children with DCD likely reflect a combination of errors in attending to visual information and movement organisation.

Muscle morphology of the lower leg in ambulant children with spastic cerebral palsy.

INTRODUCTION: In this study we aimed to determine the lower limb morphological characteristics of skeletal muscle of ambulant children with spastic cerebral palsy (CP) and typically developing (TD) children. METHODS: Seventeen children with spastic diplegic CP (10 boys and 7 girls, 5-12 years of age, Gross Motor Function Classification System [GMFCS] level I or II) and 19 TD children (8 boys and 11 girls, 5-11 years of age) underwent lower limb T1-weighted MRI. Morphological characteristics of the triceps surae, including muscle volume, anatomical cross-sectional area, muscle length, and subcutaneous adipose tissue, were digitally quantified, and the proportional distribution calculated. RESULTS: Children with GMFCS II had significantly reduced muscle volume, cross-sectional area, and muscle length, and increased subcutaneous fat compared with TD children. Children classified as GMFCS II consistently exhibited the greatest deficits in all morphology variables. DISCUSSION: Morphological variables were significantly different between the groups. These alterations have the potential to influence the functional capabilities of the triceps surae muscle group. Muscle Nerve 58:818-823, 2018.

Reliability and validity of the adapted Resistance Training Skills Battery for Children.

OBJECTIVES: Resistance training (RT) is emerging as a training modality to improve motor function and facilitate physical activity participation in children across the motor proficiency spectrum. Although RT competency assessments have been established and validated among adolescent cohorts, the extent to which these methods are suitable for assessing children's RT skills is unknown. This project aimed to assess the psychometric properties of the adapted Resistance Training Skills Battery for Children (RTSBc), in children with varying motor proficiency. DESIGN: Repeated measures design with 40 participants (M age=8.2±1.7years) displaying varying levels of motor proficiency. METHODS: Participants performed the adapted RTSBc on two occasions, receiving a score for their execution of each component, in addition to an overall RT skill quotient child (RTSQc). Cronbach's alpha, intra-class correlation (ICC), Bland-Altman analysis, and typical error were used to assess test-retest reliability. To examine construct validity, exploratory factor analysis was performed alongside computing correlations between participants' muscle strength, motor proficiency, age, lean muscle mass, and RTSQc. RESULTS: The RTSBc displayed an acceptable level of internal consistency (alpha=0.86) and test-retest reliability (ICC range=0.86-0.99). Exploratory factor analysis supported internal test structure, with all six RT skills loading strongly on a single factor (range 0.56-0.89). Analyses of structural validity revealed positive correlations for RTSQc in relation to motor proficiency (r=0.52, p<0.001) and strength scores (r=0.61, p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Analyses revealed support for the construct validity and test-retest reliability of the RTSBc, providing preliminary evidence that the RTSBc is appropriate for use in the assessment of children's RT competency.

Reduced relative volume in motor and attention regions in developmental coordination disorder: A voxel-based morphometry study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a prevalent childhood movement disorder, impacting the ability to perform movement skills at an age appropriate level. Although differences in grey matter (GM) volumes have been found in related developmental disorders, no such evidence has been linked with DCD to date. This cross-sectional study assessed structural brain differences in children with and without DCD. METHODS: High-resolution structural images were acquired from 44 children aged 7.8-12 years, including 22 children with DCD (≤16th percentile on MABC-2; no ADHD/ASD), and 22 typically developing controls (≥20th percentile on MABC-2). Structural voxel-based morphology analysis was performed to determine group differences in focal GM volumes. RESULTS: Children with DCD were found to have significant, large, right lateralised reductions in grey matter volume in the medial and middle frontal, and superior frontal gyri compared to controls. The addition of motor proficiency as a covariate explained the between-group GM volume differences, suggesting that GM volumes in motor regions are reflective of the level of motor proficiency. A positive correlation between motor proficiency and relative GM volume was also identified in the left posterior cingulate and precuneus. CONCLUSIONS: GM volume reductions in premotor frontal regions may underlie the motor difficulties characteristic of DCD. It is possible that intervention approaches targeting motor planning, attention, and executive functioning processes associated with the regions of reduced GM volume may result in functional improvements in children with DCD.

Elements contributing to meaningful participation for children and youth with disabilities: a scoping review.

PURPOSE: To synthesise research literature describing elements of community recreation and leisure activities that create meaningful participation experiences for children and youth with disabilities. METHOD: Database searches of Medline, Embase, PsycINFO, ERIC, SportDiscus, CINAHL, Scopus and Web of Science were conducted. Studies describing the experience of participating in a community-based programme or activity from the perspectives of children and youth with a disability aged 0-21 or their parents, and published in English were included. Meta-ethnography was used to synthesise qualitative data, and resulting themes were conceptualised in the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health-Child and Youth version. Consultation with stakeholders occurred throughout the review process. RESULTS: The search identified 9544 articles, of which 20 were included for review. Ten elements contributing to meaningful participation experiences were identified and organised as follows: person-based elements (n = 5; having fun, experiencing success, belonging, experiencing freedom, developing an identity); environment-focused elements (n = 4; authentic friendships, the opportunity to participate, role models, family support) and activity-related elements (n = 1; learning). CONCLUSIONS: Elements contributing to meaningful leisure participation are interrelated. This review reveals the substantial contribution that meaningful interactions and relationships have in creating and facilitating positive and engaging experiences. Outcomes of this review may assist professionals in the design of targeted interventions to facilitate leisure participation. Implications for Rehabilitation Elements identified in this review may operate as core components of interventions that aim to optimise participation outcomes in community-based leisure activities. Supportive relationships and the availability of services are specific aspects of the environment that needs to be considered by health professionals to facilitate meaningful participation. Understanding the perspectives of the child is critical for assessing needs, preferences and goals relating to leisure participation in the community.

Adaptation of the Resistance Training Skills Battery for Use in Children Across the Motor Proficiency Spectrum.

PURPOSE: The study aim was to adapt the Resistance Training Skills Battery for use in children and assess its interrater and intrarater reliability. The RTSBc provides an assessment of resistance training (RT) skill competency and an indication of readiness to perform RT. The RTSBc includes 6 basic RT skills. Scoring for individual RT skills is based on the number of performance criteria correctly demonstrated and a gross resistance training skills quotient for children (RTSQc) is calculated by summing the individual skill scores. METHODS: Twenty participants (mean age = 8.2 ± 1.8 years) were assessed while performing the RTSBc on 2 occasions. The 3 raters completing the assessments had varying levels of movement analysis and RT experience and received training in how to appraise RT skill competency using the RTSBc. RESULTS: Interrater reliability for the 3 raters was very good for the RTSQc (ICC = 0.92) and individual RT skills (ICC range = 0.82-0.94). Intrarater reliability of the live rater was also very good for the RTSQc (ICC = 0.97) and individual RT skills (ICC range = 0.87-0.95). CONCLUSION: This study has demonstrated the interrater and intrarater reliability of the RTSBc for children with varying levels of motor proficiency. The RTSBc can be used reliably within and between-raters to assess the RT skill competency of children.

Muscle histopathology in children with spastic cerebral palsy receiving botulinum toxin type A.

INTRODUCTION: Botulinum toxin A (BoNTA) is routine treatment for hypertonicity in children with cerebral palsy (CP). METHODS: This single-blind, prospective, cross-sectional study of 10 participants (mean age 11 years 7 months) was done to determine the relationship between muscle histopathology and BoNTA in treated medial gastrocnemius muscle of children with CP. Open muscle biopsies were taken from medial gastrocnemius muscle and vastus lateralis (control) during orthopedic surgery. RESULTS: Neurogenic atrophy in the medial gastrocnemius was seen in 6 participants between 4 months and 3 years post-BoNTA. Type 1 fiber loss with type 2 fiber predominance was significantly related to the number of BoNTA injections (r = 0.89, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The impact of these changes in muscle morphology on muscle function in CP is not clear. It is important to consider rotating muscle selection or injection sites within the muscle or allowing longer time between injections.